SOURCES

Works Cited

Bajaj, Monisha, et al. “Brown Bodies and Xenophobic Bullying in US Schools: Critical Analysis and Strategies for Action.”
Harvard Educational Review, vol. 86, no. 4, 2016, pp. 481–505, doi:10.17763/1943-5045-86.4.481.

This article focuses on xenophobic bullying in American school systems, specifically against South Asian school children. Several case studies involving white students removing hijabs and other religious and cultural garments, verbally abusing, and physically attacking people from this demographic, result in Bajaj et. al. classifying schools as ‘sites of peril.’ The article cites a wide variety of relevant research which supports the claims that at the macro-level, Islamophobia is an issue which resonates and affects many South Asian Americans or people who have the stereotypical characteristics of those people, especially post 9/11. The article also presents troubling information, stating that in many instances, teachers and authorities are aware of the bullying and do not intervene. The process of humanizing the ‘other’ and teaching students from a young age is a proposed solution in changing the discourse in schools. In addition to a summary of a proposed lesson plan, the article furthers the discussion of anti-bullying and empowerment by highlighting the need to address even more global politics in lesson plans, not just about South Asian, but also about colonialism, foreign policies and more. This article is extremely useful in contrasting normal discourses about empowerment in children by displaying the many ways that bullying affects student experiences, safety, and comfort within schools. The article provides strategies for action which can be implemented and can be shared to more and more schools to empower more youth.

Baker-Bell, April. “Dismantling Anti-Black Linguistic Racism in English Language Arts Classrooms: Toward an Anti-Racist
Black Language Pedagogy.” Theory into Practice, vol. 59, no. 1, Routledge, 2020, pp. 8–21,
doi:10.1080/00405841.2019.1665415.

This article addresses the anti-black linguistic racism which targets students for speaking in what the author calls Black Language (BL) and comparing it with White Mainstream English (WME). The author indicates that by opposing the use of BL in schools, teachers and institutions are neglecting native language as a linguistic resource, and that those students are often ‘code-switching’ into WME to avoid language-based discrimination. The question of who remains empowered and privileged by the use of academic language and WME demands an answer that highlights white people as the standard and Black people as ‘othered.’ It is explained that BL is stifled by monolingual ideologies and the idea that academic language is the end goal of literacy education, and in turn can be internalized by Black students where they then believe that their language is ‘ghetto,’ ‘disrespectful,’ or ‘bad.’ The author highlights the methods and research done to conclude that Critical Language Pedagogy (CLP), which educates on the importance of native and cultural languages and dismantling dominant language ideologies, can positively impact Black students. This anti-racist language pedagogy is proposed through diverse language books (such as The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas), and a seven part lesson plan which for all students. This research is extremely useful because of the connections it makes between class literature and the need to recognize that academic language is a branch of white supremacy when it inhibits BL.

Hamm, Jill V., and Hardin L. K. Coleman. “African American and White Adolescents’ Strategies for Managing Cultural Diversity
in Predominantly White High Schools.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence, vol. 30, no. 3, 2001, pp. 281–303,
doi:10.1023/A:1010488027628.

This study seeks to reveal more about the ways that adolescents interact with each other, specifically when they are in an ethnically diverse school, and are encountering different beliefs, values, behaviours, and experiences among their peers. The theoretical conceptions of the ways they handle situations include separation, assimilation/acculturation, and multiculturalism, where multiculturalism is the only one that accepts and promotes diversity. The author argues that minority groups/non-white students are often responsible for coming up with ways to relate and to conform to the group setting, especially in classroom settings. This literature effectively dives into the reasons and methods of students and their choices in dealing with diverse student bodies. It thoroughly explains the role of socio-economic status as a secondary factor in deciding what groups are made, and lastly notes that as with other studies, the self-reported nature of the findings can sometimes be different than the actions that people actually engage in. It is useful for the site because it provides a framework for students to collaborate with one another, and to encourage multicultural views rather than remain ethnocentric.


Ispa-Landa, Simone, and Jordan Conwell. “‘“Once You Go to a White School, You Kind of Adapt”’: Black Adolescents and the
Racial Classification of Schools.” Sociology of Education, vol. 88, no. 1, 2015, doi:10.1177/0038040714555434.

This article explores the racialized conceptions of success in the school system as well as what students deem ‘black’ or ‘white’ schools. The results of the paper indicate the intricate and intersectional nature of racially classifying schools based on students race, class and place (where they live) and suggest that there is a component of ‘spatial stigma’ which attaches to people and to schools. The article provides previous research as well which indicated that students perceive academic achievement as a “white phenomenon” especially in white majority schools. Ipsa-Landa and Conwell note that there is also a phenomenon called ‘Black Group Cohesion’ whereby black students sometimes rely on stereotypes or are said to be “acting white.” The result is an ‘othering’ of students who then become isolated or on the contrary fetishised for their ‘otherness.’ The use of a program called Diversify, which is a racial integration program, allowed for the researchers to conduct detailed analyses of the racially classified schools. This was possible through students who were assigned to predominantly white schools and formed observations of the environment and stereotypes. Some waitlisted students for the program did not attend the predominantly white schools that the others did, and found that there was less of a perception of achievement as white among those students who were in already diverse schools. These concepts are useful in displaying the ways in which empowerment is unequal in school systems because of the ways that student minorities must adapt and mind the pre-existing racialized places they inhabit. It is also useful to understand the student’s experiences firsthand, while introducing key terms such as intersectionality, and racialization.

Kazanjian, Christopher J. “Empowering Children.” Empowering Children, 2020, doi:10.4324/9781003049067.

Shelat, Jay. “‘I Swear Those Things Are so Fresh’: Sneakers, Race, and Mobility in the Hate u Give.” CEA Critic, vol. 81, no.
1, 2019, pp. 70–74, doi:10.1353/cea.2019.0011.

This shorter article serves to add context to Angie Thomas’ The Hate U Give by discussing the issues of racial urban infrastructures. Shelat discusses the role of the ‘color line’ in dividing cities into racial categories, something which has occured in many cities in the United States. Shelat also highlights that Starr moves back and forth over the color line, using her shoes as a bridge between Garden Heights and Williamson, and the two selves she carries to each place. The marginalized, disenfranchised and racialized section of town where Starr lives indicates racism on the macro-level as it is something which is widespread, and therefore also creates cultural divisions as well. This article draws in several ideas and makes connections between other articles for my site, including April Baker-Bell’s research on linguistic racism with the mention of ‘code switching’ and with Ipsa-Landa and Conwell’s research on the racial classification of schools. For example, Williamson is addressed as a white school, and holds ideologies about white intelligence and achievement. Because of that, Starr code switches between BL and WME to avoid racial stereotypes, while simultaneously being shamed by her Black friends for attending Williamson.

Talley, Robin. Lies We Tell Ourselves. Harlequin, 2016.

Thomas, Angie. The Hate U Give . Balzer and Bray, An Imprint of Harper Collins Publishers, 2017.

Tomlinson, Sally, et al. Racism in Children ’ s Lives : A Study of Mainly White Primary Schools
by B . Troyna and R . Hatcher Review by : Sally Tomlinson , Ken Roberts and Ian Menter. no. 3, 1992.

This review conducted about the book Racism in Children’s lives provided in-depth coverage of the ways that the authors described racism in primary schools compared to a wider range in the British population. The reflection on racial undertones and the process of learning racism as a child was discussed as something that can be somewhat undermined by rules and policies at school. It was noted that the most common racial issues in primary aged students were name calling, but the author indicates that these names that are being used are racially charged in a way that other name calling is not, and therefore can persist and support further racial slurs and actions in the future. While the review is dated and is based on data collected in Liverpool, England, the content prevails in what is known to be continuing in many North American schools presently (as shown by the continued use of racial slurs, even among teachers). The review also provided the difference between believing and knowing something and truly acting on those beliefs, as discussed with gender roles. Tomlinson, Roberts, and Menter note that surveys conducted asking people about equal rights will not be reflective of those people’s actions, meaning that they could be enforcing oppressive behaviour while still believing they are contributing to a solution. This information is useful through its discussion of children’s interactions with racism and the ways in which school systems can contribute solutions.